Environmental Management in China: Policies and Institutions 中国环境管理：政策与制度（第二版）
定价：￥188.00
作者： 吴婧，张一心
出版时间：2026-07
出版社：化学工业出版社
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- 化学工业出版社
- 9787122496225
- 2版
- 16开
- 2026-07
- 420
- 研究生及以上
目录
Chapter 1 Administration on Environmental Management 1
1.1 The History of the MEE 1
1.2 Structure and Functions of the MEE 3
Chapter 2 Evolution of China’s Environmental Policy 5
2.1 In the 1970s: The Principles of National Environmental Protection 5
2.2 In the 1980s: The Principles of Three-Simultaneity and Three-Unification 6
2.3 In the 1990s: Sustainable Development 6
2.4 In the 2000s: Scientific Outlook on Development 7
2.5 In the 2010s: Ecological Civilization 9
2.6 Concluding Remark 11
Reference 11
Chapter3 Environmental Planning 13
3.1 The Development of Environmental Planning 13
3.2 Environmental Protection and the Plan of National Economic and Social Development 18
3.2.1 Environmental Protection During the 6th FYP (1981–1985) 18
3.2.2 Environmental Protection During the 7th FYP (1986–1990) 19
3.2.3 Environmental Protection During the 8th FYP (1991–1995) 20
3.2.4 Environmental Protection During the 9th FYP (1996–2000) 20
3.2.5 Environmental Protection During the 10th FYP (2001–2005) 21
3.2.6 Environmental Protection During the 11th FYP (2006–2010) 22
3.2.7 Environmental Protection During the 12th FYP (2011–2015) 23
3.2.8 Ecological and Environmental Protection During the 13th FYP (2016–2020) 24
3.3 The Coordination and Integration of Multiple Plans 26
References 27
Chapter 4 Environmental Impact Assessment 28
4.1 The Concept and Principles of EIA 28
4.2 The Development of EIA Globally 28
4.3 The Development of EIA in China 29
4.3.1 Initial Phase (1973–1978) 29
4.3.2 Early Implementation Phase (1979–1989) 30
4.3.3 Improvement Phase (1990–2002) 31
4.3.4 Breakthrough Phase (2003–2014) 33
4.3.5 Reform (2015–Date) 34
4.4 The Legal Framework of EIA in China 35
4.5 EIA of Project (Project EIA) 36
4.5.1 Categorization for Project EIA 37
4.5.2 Process for Project EIA 37
4.5.3 Documentation for Project EIA 38
4.5.4 Public Participation in Project EIA 39
4.5.5 Review and Decision on the EIA Documents 42
4.5.6 EIA Follow-up for Construction Project 43
4.6 Regional EIA (REIA) 44
4.7 EIA of Plan (PEIA) 44
4.7.1 Applicable Scope of PEIA 45
4.7.2 Roles and Responsibilities 45
4.7.3 Approaches and Requirements of PEIA 45
4.7.4 Public Participation in PEIA 47
4.7.5 Submission of the PEIA Documents 47
4.7.6 Review of the PEIA Report of the Specific Plans 47
4.7.7 Approval of Plan 48
4.7.8 EIA Follow-up of Plan 48
4.8 Certificate System of EIA Consultancy (Revoked in 2018) 48
4.9 Management of Qualified EIA Practitioners 49
4.10 Prospects of EIA in China 50
References 51
Chapter 5 Three Synchronizations System 52
5.1 The Development of the Three Synchronizations System 53
5.2 The Requirements of the Three Synchronizations System 55
5.2.1 Synchronous Design 55
5.2.2 Synchronous Construction 55
5.2.3 Synchronous Operation 55
5.2.4 Roles and Responsibilities 56
5.2.5 The Violation 56
5.3 The Supervision Responsibility of IAEPMCP for the Competent Authority for Environmental Protection 57
References 57
Chapter 6 Emissions Charges System and Environmental Protection Tax System 58
6.1 Development of the Emissions Charges System 58
6.2 The Content of the Emissions Charges System 60
6.2.1 The Payer 60
6.2.2 Category and Amount of Pollutant Emission 60
6.2.3 Category of the Emissions Charges 60
6.2.4 Charge Rates 61
6.2.5 Collection and Utilizations of the Emissions Charges 62
6.3 The Environmental Protection Tax System 63
6.3.1 Who Pays the Environmental Protection Tax 66
6.3.2 Items Subject to the Environmental Protection Tax 66
6.3.3 Basis and Rate of the Environmental Protection Tax 68
6.3.4 Preferential Policy 69
6.3.5 Monitoring and Enforcement 69
References 69
Chapter 7 Target Responsibility System of Environmental Protection and Performance Evaluation System 70
7.1 The Formation and Development of the Target Responsibility System of Environmental Protection 70
7.2 Targets of Environmental Protection and Indicators Setting 72
7.3 Target Setting 74
7.4 Performance Evaluation 74
7.5 Shared Responsibility of Ecological and Environmental Protection for Government and Party 75
7.6 The Audit of Natural Resources Assets While Leading Cadres Leaving Office 76
References 76
Chapter 8 Centralized Pollution Control System 77
8.1 Centralized Heating in Urban Areas 77
8.2 Centralized Pollution Control of Wastewater 78
8.3 Centralized Pollution Control of Municipal Solid Waste 81
8.3.1 Landfill 82
8.3.2 Incineration 82
References 83
Chapter 9 Emission Reporting, Registration, and Permit System 84
9.1 The Formation and Development of the Emission Permit System 84
9.2 Implementation Process of the Emission Reporting, Registration, and Permit System 86
9.2.1 Reporting and Registering Pollutant Emission 86
9.2.2 Verifying Pollutant Emission 87
9.2.3 Issuing the Emission Permit 87
9.2.4 Supervision and Management for the Emission Permit 87
9.3 Essentials of the Emission Permit System 87
9.3.1 Who Shall Apply for the Emission Permit 87
9.3.2 An Integrated Emission Permit 88
9.3.3 Procedure to Apply for the Emission Permit 88
9.3.4 Conditions for Obtaining an Emission Permit 88
9.3.5 Obligatory Contents of an Emission Permit 89
9.3.6 Evaluate and Determine the Allowable Emission Based on EIA Results 90
9.3.7 Obligations of the Polluters 90
9.4 Pilot Program of Emissions Trading System 91
References 92
Chapter 10 Emissions Cap System 93
10.1 Establishment and Development of the Emissions Cap System 93
10.2 Objective Classifications of Emissions Cap 97
10.2.1 Emissions Cap Based on Environmental Capacity 97
10.2.2 Emissions Cap Based on Environmental Target 97
10.2.3 Emissions Cap Based on Previous Emissions 98
10.2.4 Emissions Cap Based on Cost Benefit Analysis 98
10.3 Pollutants Classification of Emissions Cap 98
10.3.1 Emissions Cap of Water Pollutants 98
10.3.2 Emissions Cap of Air Pollutants 99
10.4 Procedure to Develop Emissions Cap Program 99
10.4.1 Evaluations on the Emissions Cap System During the 11th FYP 99
10.4.2 Target Setting 101
10.4.3 Verification and Auditing 101
10.5 Final Remarks 102
References 102
Chapter 11 Joint Pollution Prevention and Control 103
11.1 The Need for Joint Air Pollution Prevention and Control 103
11.2 Key Regions and Key Points of Joint Air Pollution Prevention and Control 104
11.3 Key Tasks of Joint Air Pollution Prevention and Control 104
11.3.1 Optimizing the Regional Industrial Structure and Layout 105
11.3.2 Intensifying the Extent of Pollution Prevention and Control on Key Pollutants 105
11.3.3 Promoting the Comprehensive Utilization of Clean Energy 106
11.3.4 Intensifying Pollution Prevention and Control of Motor Vehicles 107
11.3.5 Improving the Regional Air Quality Monitoring System 108
References 109
Chapter 12 Public Participation and Environmental Information Disclosure 110
12.1 Legislative Process of Public Participation in Environmental Management 110
12.2 Channels of Public Participation in Environmental Management 114
12.3 Other Means of Public Participation in Environmental Management 115
12.4 Environmental Information Disclosure 118
12.4.1 Government Environmental Affairs Information Disclosure 119
12.4.2 Environmental Quality Information Disclosure 119
12.4.3 Corporate Environmental Information Disclosure 120
12.4.4 Information Disclosure in EIA 122
References 122
Chapter 13 Eco-Environmental Zoning Management 123
13.1 The Significance of the EEZM 123
13.2 The Development of the EEZM 124
13.3 The Content of the EEZM 126
13.3.1 Formulating the EEZM Schemes 126
13.3.2 Classifying the Eco-Environment Control Units 126
13.3.3 Compiling One-Inventory 126
13.3.4 Establishing the Information Platform of the EEZM 127
13.3.5 Regular Adjustment and Updating 127
13.4 The Implementation of the EEZM 128
13.4.1 Promoting Economic and Social High-Quality Development 128
13.4.2 Employing One-Inventory 128
13.4.3 Collaboration between Eco-Environmental Policies and the EEZM System 128
13.5 Technical System of the EEZM 129
13.5.1 The Red Line for Ecological Conservation (Ecological Protection Red Line) 130
13.5.2 The Upper-Limit Line for Resource Utilization (Resource Consumption Cap) 131
13.5.3 The Bottom Line for Environmental Quality (Environmental Quality Baseline) 132
13.5.4 One-Inventory 132
References 134
Chapter 14 Compensation for Eco-Environmental Damage 135
14.1 International Experience 135
14.1.1 In the United States 136
14.1.2 In the European Union 137
14.2 Necessity 137
14.3 Related Policies 137
14.3.1 Scope of Application 138
14.3.2 Obligees and Obligors of Compensation 138
14.3.3 Liability for Tort 139
14.3.4 Procedures of Compensation for Eco-Environmental Damage 139
14.3.5 Technical Standard System of Identifying and Assessing Eco-Environmental Damage 140
References 141
Chapter 15 Cleaner Production 142
15.1 Initiation 142
15.2 Legal System Development 143
15.2.1 The Beginning Stage (1973–1992) 143
15.2.2 The Legalization Stage (1993–2002) 143
15.2.3 The Institutionalization Stage (2003–2005) 144
15.2.4 The Perfection Stage (2006 to Date) 145
15.3 Capacity Building 147
15.3.1 Institution Development 147
15.3.2 Professional Training 147
15.3.3 Guidelines and Standards 148
15.4 Mandatory Cleaner Production Audit 148
15.5 Cleaner Production in Key Areas 150
15.5.1 Cleaner Production in Industry 150
15.5.2 Cleaner Production in Agriculture 152
15.5.3 Cleaner Production in Construction Industry 152
15.5.4 Cleaner Production in Service Industry 153
15.5.5 Cleaner Production in Transportation 153
15.6 Recommendations for Promoting CP Development in China 153
15.7 Conclusions 155
References 155
Chapter 16 Ecological Compensation 157
16.1 Introduction 157
16.2 Development of ECMs 158
16.2.1 Worldwide Development 158
16.2.2 China’s Development 158
16.3 Basic Framework of Ecological Compensation System 161
16.3.1 Classification of Ecological Compensation System Based on Vital Eco-Environmental Elements 161
16.3.2 Vertical Ecological Compensation 161
16.3.3 Lateral Ecological Compensation 162
16.3.4 Market Mechanism of Ecological Compensation 163
16.4 Financial Sources for ECM in China 163
16.4.1 Financial Transfer Payment 163
16.4.2 Special Funds 164
16.4.3 Resource Taxation System 164
16.4.4 Payments for Ecological Compensation 165
16.5 Major Ecological Engineering Projects in China 166
16.5.1 Three-North Project 166
16.5.2 Natural Forest Protection 166
16.5.3 Returning Farmland to Forest/Grassland 167
16.5.4 Beijing-Tianjin Sandstorm Sources Governance 167
16.5.5 Returning Rangeland to Forest/Grassland 167
16.6 ECM for Sector 170
16.6.1 ECM for Forest 170
16.6.2 ECM for Coal Mining 170
16.6.3 ECM for Grassland 172
16.7 ECM at Local Level 173
16.7.1 ECM for the Three Rivers Source District, Qinghai Province 173
16.7.2 ECM for Poyang Lake, Jiangxi Province 174
16.7.3 ECM for Nature Reserves, Hainan Province 174
16.7.4 The ECM for Natural Resource Utilization, Sichuan Province 175
16.7.5 The ECM for Watershed Conservation, Yunnan Province 175
16.8 Conclusions 176
References 176
Chapter 17 Air Quality Governance in China 178
17.1 General Features of Air Pollution 178
17.2 Legal Institution and System 179
17.3 Process of Development 181
17.3.1 Phase Ⅰ: Legal Institution Management for Air Pollution Control on Soot (from 1979 to 1997) 181
17.3.2 Phase Ⅱ: Exploring Unified Regional Air Pollution Prevention and Control for Emerging Compound Pollution (from 1998 to 2012) 182
17.3.3 Phase Ⅲ: Integrating Unified Regional Air Pollution Prevention and Control for Compound Pollution (from 2013 to 2017) 185
17.3.4 Phase Ⅳ: Fighting the Blue-Sky War (from 2018 to 2020) 187
17.3.5 Phase Ⅴ: Collaborative Control of Decreasing Pollution and Reducing Emission (from 2021 to 2030) 188
17.4 Evaluations and Prospects 189
References 189
Chapter 18 Water Quality Governance in China 190
18.1 Water Resources in China 190
18.2 Water Quality in China 192
18.2.1 Surface Water Quality 193
18.2.2 Watershed Water Quality 193
18.2.3 Groundwater Quality 193
18.2.4 Urban Water Quality 194
18.3 Laws and Regulations on Water Pollution Prevention and Control 195
18.4 Water Management in China 197
18.5 Progress 200
References 201
Chapter 19 Land Resources Governance in China 203
19.1 Land Resources in China 203
19.2 Land Resources Protection 204
19.3 Land Resources Degradation and Land Pollution in China 205
19.3.1 Land Degradation 205
19.3.2 Land Pollution 205
19.3.3 Overall Spatial Distribution of Soil Pollution 206
19.3.4 Status Quo of Soil Pollution of Various Types of Land 206
19.4 Laws and Regulations on Land Pollution Prevention and Control 207
19.5 Challenges and Countermeasures 211
19.5.1 Challenges 211
19.5.2 Countermeasures 211
References 214
Comparison Table 216
1.1 The History of the MEE 1
1.2 Structure and Functions of the MEE 3
Chapter 2 Evolution of China’s Environmental Policy 5
2.1 In the 1970s: The Principles of National Environmental Protection 5
2.2 In the 1980s: The Principles of Three-Simultaneity and Three-Unification 6
2.3 In the 1990s: Sustainable Development 6
2.4 In the 2000s: Scientific Outlook on Development 7
2.5 In the 2010s: Ecological Civilization 9
2.6 Concluding Remark 11
Reference 11
Chapter3 Environmental Planning 13
3.1 The Development of Environmental Planning 13
3.2 Environmental Protection and the Plan of National Economic and Social Development 18
3.2.1 Environmental Protection During the 6th FYP (1981–1985) 18
3.2.2 Environmental Protection During the 7th FYP (1986–1990) 19
3.2.3 Environmental Protection During the 8th FYP (1991–1995) 20
3.2.4 Environmental Protection During the 9th FYP (1996–2000) 20
3.2.5 Environmental Protection During the 10th FYP (2001–2005) 21
3.2.6 Environmental Protection During the 11th FYP (2006–2010) 22
3.2.7 Environmental Protection During the 12th FYP (2011–2015) 23
3.2.8 Ecological and Environmental Protection During the 13th FYP (2016–2020) 24
3.3 The Coordination and Integration of Multiple Plans 26
References 27
Chapter 4 Environmental Impact Assessment 28
4.1 The Concept and Principles of EIA 28
4.2 The Development of EIA Globally 28
4.3 The Development of EIA in China 29
4.3.1 Initial Phase (1973–1978) 29
4.3.2 Early Implementation Phase (1979–1989) 30
4.3.3 Improvement Phase (1990–2002) 31
4.3.4 Breakthrough Phase (2003–2014) 33
4.3.5 Reform (2015–Date) 34
4.4 The Legal Framework of EIA in China 35
4.5 EIA of Project (Project EIA) 36
4.5.1 Categorization for Project EIA 37
4.5.2 Process for Project EIA 37
4.5.3 Documentation for Project EIA 38
4.5.4 Public Participation in Project EIA 39
4.5.5 Review and Decision on the EIA Documents 42
4.5.6 EIA Follow-up for Construction Project 43
4.6 Regional EIA (REIA) 44
4.7 EIA of Plan (PEIA) 44
4.7.1 Applicable Scope of PEIA 45
4.7.2 Roles and Responsibilities 45
4.7.3 Approaches and Requirements of PEIA 45
4.7.4 Public Participation in PEIA 47
4.7.5 Submission of the PEIA Documents 47
4.7.6 Review of the PEIA Report of the Specific Plans 47
4.7.7 Approval of Plan 48
4.7.8 EIA Follow-up of Plan 48
4.8 Certificate System of EIA Consultancy (Revoked in 2018) 48
4.9 Management of Qualified EIA Practitioners 49
4.10 Prospects of EIA in China 50
References 51
Chapter 5 Three Synchronizations System 52
5.1 The Development of the Three Synchronizations System 53
5.2 The Requirements of the Three Synchronizations System 55
5.2.1 Synchronous Design 55
5.2.2 Synchronous Construction 55
5.2.3 Synchronous Operation 55
5.2.4 Roles and Responsibilities 56
5.2.5 The Violation 56
5.3 The Supervision Responsibility of IAEPMCP for the Competent Authority for Environmental Protection 57
References 57
Chapter 6 Emissions Charges System and Environmental Protection Tax System 58
6.1 Development of the Emissions Charges System 58
6.2 The Content of the Emissions Charges System 60
6.2.1 The Payer 60
6.2.2 Category and Amount of Pollutant Emission 60
6.2.3 Category of the Emissions Charges 60
6.2.4 Charge Rates 61
6.2.5 Collection and Utilizations of the Emissions Charges 62
6.3 The Environmental Protection Tax System 63
6.3.1 Who Pays the Environmental Protection Tax 66
6.3.2 Items Subject to the Environmental Protection Tax 66
6.3.3 Basis and Rate of the Environmental Protection Tax 68
6.3.4 Preferential Policy 69
6.3.5 Monitoring and Enforcement 69
References 69
Chapter 7 Target Responsibility System of Environmental Protection and Performance Evaluation System 70
7.1 The Formation and Development of the Target Responsibility System of Environmental Protection 70
7.2 Targets of Environmental Protection and Indicators Setting 72
7.3 Target Setting 74
7.4 Performance Evaluation 74
7.5 Shared Responsibility of Ecological and Environmental Protection for Government and Party 75
7.6 The Audit of Natural Resources Assets While Leading Cadres Leaving Office 76
References 76
Chapter 8 Centralized Pollution Control System 77
8.1 Centralized Heating in Urban Areas 77
8.2 Centralized Pollution Control of Wastewater 78
8.3 Centralized Pollution Control of Municipal Solid Waste 81
8.3.1 Landfill 82
8.3.2 Incineration 82
References 83
Chapter 9 Emission Reporting, Registration, and Permit System 84
9.1 The Formation and Development of the Emission Permit System 84
9.2 Implementation Process of the Emission Reporting, Registration, and Permit System 86
9.2.1 Reporting and Registering Pollutant Emission 86
9.2.2 Verifying Pollutant Emission 87
9.2.3 Issuing the Emission Permit 87
9.2.4 Supervision and Management for the Emission Permit 87
9.3 Essentials of the Emission Permit System 87
9.3.1 Who Shall Apply for the Emission Permit 87
9.3.2 An Integrated Emission Permit 88
9.3.3 Procedure to Apply for the Emission Permit 88
9.3.4 Conditions for Obtaining an Emission Permit 88
9.3.5 Obligatory Contents of an Emission Permit 89
9.3.6 Evaluate and Determine the Allowable Emission Based on EIA Results 90
9.3.7 Obligations of the Polluters 90
9.4 Pilot Program of Emissions Trading System 91
References 92
Chapter 10 Emissions Cap System 93
10.1 Establishment and Development of the Emissions Cap System 93
10.2 Objective Classifications of Emissions Cap 97
10.2.1 Emissions Cap Based on Environmental Capacity 97
10.2.2 Emissions Cap Based on Environmental Target 97
10.2.3 Emissions Cap Based on Previous Emissions 98
10.2.4 Emissions Cap Based on Cost Benefit Analysis 98
10.3 Pollutants Classification of Emissions Cap 98
10.3.1 Emissions Cap of Water Pollutants 98
10.3.2 Emissions Cap of Air Pollutants 99
10.4 Procedure to Develop Emissions Cap Program 99
10.4.1 Evaluations on the Emissions Cap System During the 11th FYP 99
10.4.2 Target Setting 101
10.4.3 Verification and Auditing 101
10.5 Final Remarks 102
References 102
Chapter 11 Joint Pollution Prevention and Control 103
11.1 The Need for Joint Air Pollution Prevention and Control 103
11.2 Key Regions and Key Points of Joint Air Pollution Prevention and Control 104
11.3 Key Tasks of Joint Air Pollution Prevention and Control 104
11.3.1 Optimizing the Regional Industrial Structure and Layout 105
11.3.2 Intensifying the Extent of Pollution Prevention and Control on Key Pollutants 105
11.3.3 Promoting the Comprehensive Utilization of Clean Energy 106
11.3.4 Intensifying Pollution Prevention and Control of Motor Vehicles 107
11.3.5 Improving the Regional Air Quality Monitoring System 108
References 109
Chapter 12 Public Participation and Environmental Information Disclosure 110
12.1 Legislative Process of Public Participation in Environmental Management 110
12.2 Channels of Public Participation in Environmental Management 114
12.3 Other Means of Public Participation in Environmental Management 115
12.4 Environmental Information Disclosure 118
12.4.1 Government Environmental Affairs Information Disclosure 119
12.4.2 Environmental Quality Information Disclosure 119
12.4.3 Corporate Environmental Information Disclosure 120
12.4.4 Information Disclosure in EIA 122
References 122
Chapter 13 Eco-Environmental Zoning Management 123
13.1 The Significance of the EEZM 123
13.2 The Development of the EEZM 124
13.3 The Content of the EEZM 126
13.3.1 Formulating the EEZM Schemes 126
13.3.2 Classifying the Eco-Environment Control Units 126
13.3.3 Compiling One-Inventory 126
13.3.4 Establishing the Information Platform of the EEZM 127
13.3.5 Regular Adjustment and Updating 127
13.4 The Implementation of the EEZM 128
13.4.1 Promoting Economic and Social High-Quality Development 128
13.4.2 Employing One-Inventory 128
13.4.3 Collaboration between Eco-Environmental Policies and the EEZM System 128
13.5 Technical System of the EEZM 129
13.5.1 The Red Line for Ecological Conservation (Ecological Protection Red Line) 130
13.5.2 The Upper-Limit Line for Resource Utilization (Resource Consumption Cap) 131
13.5.3 The Bottom Line for Environmental Quality (Environmental Quality Baseline) 132
13.5.4 One-Inventory 132
References 134
Chapter 14 Compensation for Eco-Environmental Damage 135
14.1 International Experience 135
14.1.1 In the United States 136
14.1.2 In the European Union 137
14.2 Necessity 137
14.3 Related Policies 137
14.3.1 Scope of Application 138
14.3.2 Obligees and Obligors of Compensation 138
14.3.3 Liability for Tort 139
14.3.4 Procedures of Compensation for Eco-Environmental Damage 139
14.3.5 Technical Standard System of Identifying and Assessing Eco-Environmental Damage 140
References 141
Chapter 15 Cleaner Production 142
15.1 Initiation 142
15.2 Legal System Development 143
15.2.1 The Beginning Stage (1973–1992) 143
15.2.2 The Legalization Stage (1993–2002) 143
15.2.3 The Institutionalization Stage (2003–2005) 144
15.2.4 The Perfection Stage (2006 to Date) 145
15.3 Capacity Building 147
15.3.1 Institution Development 147
15.3.2 Professional Training 147
15.3.3 Guidelines and Standards 148
15.4 Mandatory Cleaner Production Audit 148
15.5 Cleaner Production in Key Areas 150
15.5.1 Cleaner Production in Industry 150
15.5.2 Cleaner Production in Agriculture 152
15.5.3 Cleaner Production in Construction Industry 152
15.5.4 Cleaner Production in Service Industry 153
15.5.5 Cleaner Production in Transportation 153
15.6 Recommendations for Promoting CP Development in China 153
15.7 Conclusions 155
References 155
Chapter 16 Ecological Compensation 157
16.1 Introduction 157
16.2 Development of ECMs 158
16.2.1 Worldwide Development 158
16.2.2 China’s Development 158
16.3 Basic Framework of Ecological Compensation System 161
16.3.1 Classification of Ecological Compensation System Based on Vital Eco-Environmental Elements 161
16.3.2 Vertical Ecological Compensation 161
16.3.3 Lateral Ecological Compensation 162
16.3.4 Market Mechanism of Ecological Compensation 163
16.4 Financial Sources for ECM in China 163
16.4.1 Financial Transfer Payment 163
16.4.2 Special Funds 164
16.4.3 Resource Taxation System 164
16.4.4 Payments for Ecological Compensation 165
16.5 Major Ecological Engineering Projects in China 166
16.5.1 Three-North Project 166
16.5.2 Natural Forest Protection 166
16.5.3 Returning Farmland to Forest/Grassland 167
16.5.4 Beijing-Tianjin Sandstorm Sources Governance 167
16.5.5 Returning Rangeland to Forest/Grassland 167
16.6 ECM for Sector 170
16.6.1 ECM for Forest 170
16.6.2 ECM for Coal Mining 170
16.6.3 ECM for Grassland 172
16.7 ECM at Local Level 173
16.7.1 ECM for the Three Rivers Source District, Qinghai Province 173
16.7.2 ECM for Poyang Lake, Jiangxi Province 174
16.7.3 ECM for Nature Reserves, Hainan Province 174
16.7.4 The ECM for Natural Resource Utilization, Sichuan Province 175
16.7.5 The ECM for Watershed Conservation, Yunnan Province 175
16.8 Conclusions 176
References 176
Chapter 17 Air Quality Governance in China 178
17.1 General Features of Air Pollution 178
17.2 Legal Institution and System 179
17.3 Process of Development 181
17.3.1 Phase Ⅰ: Legal Institution Management for Air Pollution Control on Soot (from 1979 to 1997) 181
17.3.2 Phase Ⅱ: Exploring Unified Regional Air Pollution Prevention and Control for Emerging Compound Pollution (from 1998 to 2012) 182
17.3.3 Phase Ⅲ: Integrating Unified Regional Air Pollution Prevention and Control for Compound Pollution (from 2013 to 2017) 185
17.3.4 Phase Ⅳ: Fighting the Blue-Sky War (from 2018 to 2020) 187
17.3.5 Phase Ⅴ: Collaborative Control of Decreasing Pollution and Reducing Emission (from 2021 to 2030) 188
17.4 Evaluations and Prospects 189
References 189
Chapter 18 Water Quality Governance in China 190
18.1 Water Resources in China 190
18.2 Water Quality in China 192
18.2.1 Surface Water Quality 193
18.2.2 Watershed Water Quality 193
18.2.3 Groundwater Quality 193
18.2.4 Urban Water Quality 194
18.3 Laws and Regulations on Water Pollution Prevention and Control 195
18.4 Water Management in China 197
18.5 Progress 200
References 201
Chapter 19 Land Resources Governance in China 203
19.1 Land Resources in China 203
19.2 Land Resources Protection 204
19.3 Land Resources Degradation and Land Pollution in China 205
19.3.1 Land Degradation 205
19.3.2 Land Pollution 205
19.3.3 Overall Spatial Distribution of Soil Pollution 206
19.3.4 Status Quo of Soil Pollution of Various Types of Land 206
19.4 Laws and Regulations on Land Pollution Prevention and Control 207
19.5 Challenges and Countermeasures 211
19.5.1 Challenges 211
19.5.2 Countermeasures 211
References 214
Comparison Table 216
